Comprehensively and systematically analyze how American foreign policy Essay

Comprehensively and systematically analyze how American foreign policy is made and implemented. Government American Foreign Policy - Essay Example A study of the Presidential candidates and Congressmen gives away an important truth, namely that the political leaders of the country emerge from an elite socio-economic background. As a result, their loyalties are firmly rooted to their friends in corporate America, thereby neglecting the general public. For example, former President George W. Bush has close links to major oil companies in America. Vice President Dick Cheney was formerly the CEO of Halliburtun Corporation. It is no surprise then that invading oil-rich Iraq was a key objective of their eight year reign. After the decision to invade Iraq was formally announced, the stock prices of oil and energy companies, including Halliburton shot up. The Bush Administration proceeded with the war despite vociferous public outcry against the invasion, both within and outside the United States. Such trends are far from democratic ideals and goes on to reinforce the words of caution given by former President Dwight Eisenhower, who fa mously remarked in his farewell speech that much of the policy initiatives in America are made within the framework of the Military-Industrial complex. Consequently, the foreign policy initiatives serve the vested business interests rather than the general public. Some of the liberal intellectuals in the world have pointed to the United States high-handed foreign policy measures in the last half century. These include Noam Chomsky, Howard Zinn, Robert Fisk, etc. They correctly point out that the United States governments tend to adopt double standards in several cases. For example, the US government did not intervene during the East Timor genocide because the perpetrators of the crime was Indonesia – a strong strategic ally. The same is true with respect to Saudi Arabia. Despite the availability of copious evidence to prove the Kingdoms poor human rights standards, Washington continues to maintain cordial relations with

Mobile Operating Systems Essay Example for Free

Mobile Operating Systems Essay The purpose of this research paper is to provide a basic overview of what a mobile operating system is and the different options available to choose from. Many issues arise when determining which mobile OS is the best for each user, such as security issues, availability of apps, compatibility with other hardware, etc. These are all fundamental aspects to consider when choosing what mobile OS someone would want to invest in when choosing their smartphone of choice. The most popular mobile OS’s are developed specifically for smartphones, while other feature-rich phones use stripped down mobile version of an OS that doesn’t provide as many features and capabilities as more advanced mobile operating systems. These higher end mobile operating systems that we will be focusing on are iOS, Android, Windows Phone, Blackberry, and webOS. While there does exist a greater variety of mobile operating systems, the following operating systems are the main OS’s that exist in the United States and around the world. What is a mobile operating system? How do you know which mobile OS is the best one to fit the specific needs of a user or business? Those questions will hopefully be answered by analyzing the mobile OS industry and what each mobile OS has to offer in terms of features, capabilities, and the availability of services within the OS. The Smartphone Market Today Over the last few years, companies have taken the initiative to make mobility a strong focus among modern day uses. And smartphones have become a prime target to dry and develop for to achieve top market share over the competition. Mobile operating systems is an industry that is in its growth cycle, making it more and more enticing for companies to enter the market. There are a couple manufacturer-built operating systems, which is Apple’s iOS operating system, RIM’s Blackberry OS, and HP’s webOS. Third party propriety operating systems consist of Microsoft’s Windows Phone 7, and a few open-sourced operating systems are Google’s Android OS, etc. (Haroon, 2011) The Importance of Mobile Operating Systems In America, the importance and significance of what mobile operating system you are using has become more and more of a topic of discussion. Many tech sites and blog sites are comparing the top mobile OS and providing a side by side comparison to determine which the best one is. But the bottom line is, each mobile OS provides great features and has been polished and developed over many versions throughout the years that each one ends up being a good OS. It all ends up to what the user want, and what specific needs the user requires that is met by the right mobile OS. Around the globe, â€Å"IDC say 157. 8 million smartphones sold worldwide in Q4 2011, bringing the total for the year to 491. 4 million units. (Haroon, 2011) The first Apple iOS version was released with the iPhone in 2007. The OS’s intuitive and easy to use ability has given the OS the competitive advantage and its features. The first iteration of iOS lacked many features that other smartphone operating systems had but Apple quickly began to develop more and more features that customers requested, like copy paste, tethering, etc. Blackberry is developed by RIM and has been a tremendous success throughout the business world, and became the choice of smartphone when it was first released. Although it had a lot of success initially, it began to decline with the increase of competition of Android and iOS. HP webOS was HP’s attempt to get into the mobile industry, when Palm first initially built webOS. It did not catch on among consumers and never gained enough market share to be competitive. Android is Google’s take on how mobile operating systems should be; open and user customizable. It was developed in 2005 and saw a huge growth and has quickly become the mobile OS of choice amongst many across the world. iOS by Apple The iOS mobile OS, formerly known as iPhone OS, was unveiled on January 9, 2007 at the Macworld Conference Expo. It was then later released to the public with the release of the first iPhone later that June. The iPhone was one of the first smartphones that revolutionized the smartphone industry and set a new standard to how smartphones should be today and the vision for the future. iOS quickly became so popular that Apple began to use the iOS to operate other devices such as the iPod touch, iPad 1 + 2, and the Apple TV. Shortly after the release of the iPhone, Apple then announced that a Software Development Kit (SDK) was under development and would be in the hands of developers soon. This led to an influx of developers rushing to the mobile OS to find new and intuitive ways that users can interact with their phone through third party applications. The AppStore was a success when released and apps were being developed at an extraordinary pace for the iPhone. To develop and make apps for iOS, you must have a keen understanding to develop using Xcode and objective-C. (Since the release of Xcode 3. , Xcode is the development environment for the iOS SDK. iPhone applications, like iOS and Mac OS X, are written in Objective-C. † (O’Dell, 2012) iOS is essentially a home screen with app icons with limited customization options for the user, but this is what made the iPhone so popular. It was easy to use and intuitive. It was easy for a new person entering the smartphone market to pick up the iPhone and learn how to use it within a matter of a few minutes. Although it doesn’t provide the heavy customizing options like Android, it stands up fairly well against the competition and the sales of the iPhone, iPod, and iPad prove that. Android by Google Android, Inc. was initially founded in Palo Alto, California in 2003 by Andy Rubin. Android, Inc. was then later acquired by Google in 2005 and became a wholly owned subsidiary of Google. With the support and funding of Google, Android quickly became a mobile OS force to be reckoned with. Android is a mobile OS that is Linux-based for smartphones and tablets. â€Å"Android has a large community of developers writing applications (apps) that extend the functionality of the devices. Developers write primarily in a customized version of Java. Apps can be downloaded from third-party sites or through online stores such as Android Market, the app store run by Google. † Google had one thing in mind when it came to Android, and that was to compete head to head against Apple’s iOS. Since the introduction of Android, many updates have been released adding new features and capabilities that kept it being on par with the iPhone, and sometimes even exceeding in areas that iOS lacked, such as multi-tasking and customization options. One of the primary reasons Android became so successful was due to its open source environment. Manufacturers from all over the world began to develop smartphones integrating the Android OS while also developing a customized version of their own take on Android on top of it. HTC, Samsung, and Motorola are a few of many that are known for providing customized versions of Android that make it a more customizable phone experience for users. (Newman, 2012) While Android has seen an extraordinary growth and positive feedback from consumers in recent years, along with the OS comes its downfalls and negatives. One aspect that has always plagued Android from the beginning and has only gotten worse is this idea of fragmentation. Google releases a handful of updates throughout the year, and due to the openness of Android, hardware manufacturers have always been given the freedom to customize Android in their own way making their devices differentiate from the competition. This has only caused these updates that Google releases during the year to not be readily available once the update is pushed out. Consumers are finding themselves craving for the latest Android update only to be waiting for months and months after it is released. Google seems to be listening and plans to reduce fragmentation across its operating system starting with the release of Ice Cream Sandwich (Android 4. 0). Google is making it mandatory that any smartphone or tablet that has the Android Market installed will have to by default make the new â€Å"Holo† theme that ICS introduced. This is a step in the right direction for Android and the result of this change will hopefully be speedier delivery of future Android updates. (Purewal, 2012) Google has had tremendous success no doubt with its Android mobile operating system. Following the steps of the OS version dubbed â€Å"gingerbread†, Ice Scream Sandwich followed suit implementing new features and user interface changes that make Android more modern and competitive against the iPhone. But Google is already taking its next step in the next version of Android. Android 5. 0, which will be dubbed â€Å"Jelly Bean†, is the next version Google plans to release following the Ice Cream Sandwich release. This version of the mobile OS will implement better tablet handling for the new features and UI changes that were introduced in Ice Scream Sandwich. Even though Ice Cream Sandwich just came out of its wrapper, the upcoming release of Windows 8 has supposedly inspired Google to speed up its release schedule. Android 5. 0 is rumored to have Chrome integration; Also in DigiTimes report were hints that Android 5. 0 Jelly Bean will come in two flavors: Google and Microsoft. The article said that brand vendors can either choose to adopt only Android 5. 0 or add Android 5. 0 to Windows 8 devices with the ability to switch between the two OSes without the need to shut down the computer. (Slattery, 2012) With these rumors surfacing up, it’s looking like a bright future for Android and the types of integration Google has planned for the OS among other devices. If the rumors come out to be true, Apple may have something to be worried about. Blackberry by RIM (Research In Motion) In the business world, RIM was a company that everyone knew about. Businesses from all over the world knew that if people were to have a smartphone in a business, the best choice would be a blackberry. Although RIM has lost its market share it once had, it will always be remembered as one of the best mobile OS in for a business. Blackberry is a propriety operating system developed by Research In Motion which debuted in January 1999 with version 1. 0 for the Pager Blackberry 580. Throughout the years, RIM began to continue adding new features implementing input devices such as track wheel, track ball, and most recently, the track pad and touchscreen. iOS and Android began competing for the smartphone market releasing updates for their mobile OS that in ways surpassed the capabilities and features of the once king Blackberry OS. (Kerr, 2012) In 2011, RIM released Blackberry OS 7. version which was long rumored to implement features found within other popular mobile OS. But something always plagued the Blackberry OS. Apps did not catch on within the Blackberry atmosphere as it did with the iPhone. Developers did not find it easy to develop for the OS and thought that RIM did not have the hardware support needed to have such high quality apps. RIM began finding itself lagging behind the competition and to this day are still trying to find ways to climb back up the ladder they once were. Their recent attempts with OS 7. 0 are to tie in user interface concepts found within iOS, Android, and Windows Phone. Blackberry has always been an OS to differentiate itself from the competition, but this shift seems like the wrong direction for Blackberry. Instead of trying to nibble bits and pieces of other mobile OS’s, RIM needs to find new and innovative ways that it can stand out from its competition. Windows Phone 7 by Microsoft When people from all over the world speak about operating systems, Microsoft is the giant that comes to mind within the PC industry. Microsoft is a company that revolutionized the way individuals interact with computers and the capabilities available today. But Microsoft was once the giant for the mobile OS market as it was for the PC market. Windows Mobile was developed by Microsoft and it was based off of the Windows CE kernel. It supported applications that were developed by third party developers with no imposed restrictions by Microsoft. This allowed developer to build software that the Windows platform supported while also having the opportunity to profit from the software they made available. One of the most common features within Windows Mobile was the ability to multitask and also the ability to navigate a file system that was somewhat similar to that of Windows 9x/NT. The success Microsoft once had in the smartphone market soon came to an end. With the introduction of the iPhone by Apple, every competitor saw an uphill battle. Apple grabbed many developers in order to make the mobile OS a huge success like it is today. iOS introduced new features and rich native apps that were not found in any other mobile OS. In short, Windows Mobile looked very outdated compared to iOS. The success of iOS began to dethrone Microsoft from the top spot it once had, finding itself struggling to keep up with the competition. Microsoft released many software versions of Windows Mobile throughout the years; Windows Mobile 5, 6, 6. 1, 6. 5. But each software release did not have the impact Microsoft desired it to have. Microsoft knew it had to do something, and fast. So they introduced Windows Phone 7. Windows Phone 7 is the successor of the Windows Mobile operating system. It is developed by Microsoft and was launched in the second half of 2010 and early 2011 in Asia. This mobile OS was a complete redesign to what Microsoft was doing in all of its previous years with Windows Mobile. They adapted up to date technology and development tools that were relevant in today’s modern world, such as Silverlight. Microsoft had a whole new attitude with Windows Phone 7, and their mission is to see their competitors catch up to them. Microsoft offers a new user interface with its design language, Metro, integrates the operating system with third party and other Microsoft services, and controls the hardware on which it runs. One of the newest revisions of a mobile operating system has been Microsoft’s latest attempt of Windows on smartphone. Windows Mobile was an extreme failure that simply could not catch on as much as they tried. The operating system was buggy and not very user friendly for the usual smartphone customer. Windows Phone 7 is Microsoft’s latest attempt to try and turn around the future of Windows on mobile devices. Fackler states ten reasons why he believes it has an edge over Google’s Android operating system. The first being it’s user stream-lined user interface. â€Å"With WP7, you know what kind of interface you’re going to be working with, regardless of the handset manufacturer. † Secondly, it has an easier to user interface. WP7’s â€Å"tile† system is simply easier to organize and find the things you need to throughout the day. † Thirdly, Windows Phone 7 has a less amount of apps compared to Android that are crap. â€Å"WP7’s â€Å"tile† system is simply easier to organize and find the things you need to throughout the day. † The other reasons are, Microsoft live integration, Microsoft Mobile Office integration, less lawsuits compared to Android, stability, Zune integration, snappier keyboard, and lastly, no ad-ware. All of these reasons contribute to why Fackler states Windows Phone 7 has the competitive advantage over Android. Not everyone is clearly a fan of Android, and the important thing to always remember, is that there are other options available depending on the user and how they would prefer their mobile operating system experience to be. (Fackler, 2012) WebOS by HP There are a few varieties of mobile operating systems that exist today. iOS, Android, Blackberry, and Windows Phone 7 are proving to be the more dominant mobile OS within the world. But there was an operating system that was created in the days of Palm that saw a blurry vision. Palm created webOS to compete against the iOS which is developed by Apple. WebOS was one of the first mobile operating systems from an intuitive standpoint to give iOS a run for its money. It introduced a new way for multitasking on smartphones and implemented a great strategy to do so. It was a first of its kind really on any mobile operating system. WebOS also had a feature called Synergy. What Synergy did was pull information from other networks, and integrated that information seamlessly within the OS. This was an operating system that without the necessary support it needed, later began to suffer and fell into the hands of HP. HP purchased Palm for $1. billion and the future of webOS remained a mystery. HP later confirmed that it will stop producing webOS hardware products which meant no more tablets, smartphones, etc. But that does not mark the fate of webOS. HP announced that webOS will live on as an open source platform. â€Å"HP will make the underlying code of webOS available under an open source license. Developers, partners, HP engineers and other hardware manufacturers can deliver ongoing enhancements and new versions into the marketplace. † With the OS now being open sourced, will webOS finally get the hardware it deserves? This can only increase the amount of options we have available in the mobile operating systems industry. In recent months, Hewlett Packard made the decision to make the once popular webOS mobile operating system open-source. This means that developers and hardware manufacturers will have the opportunity to manipulate the OS in ways that were limited before. But some say that the problem was never in the fact that webOS was closed source; it was webOS and its initial development from the beginning that determined the failure of the mobile OS. WebOS relied on WebKit, which is an open-source software engine used by browsers to display Web pages. Mr. Mercer said that this was a mistake because it prevented the applications to run as fast enough to be on par compared to the iPhone. â€Å"WebOS app development team said the core issue with WebOS was actually Palm’s inability to turn it into a platform that could capture the enthusiasm and loyalty of outside programmers. † WebOS was developed in about nine months, and the company according to this former employee, took some short cuts to get there. Another issue that determined the outlook of webOS was recruitment. Back in 2009, it was hard to find programmers that had a good understanding and grasped the developmental oncepts involving WebKit. Mr. Mercer said that most of the top talent was already snatched up by Apple and Google. The former employees said that Jon Rubenstein, former Palm’s chief executive, because of his hardware background, he did not understand the logistics of creating a powerful new operating system, and he was ultimately responsible for the decision to rely on WebKit. Conclusion of Mobile Operating Systems Clearly, there are many options to choose from when it comes to smartphones today, and what mobile operating system is found underneath the hardware is just as important as the hardware it runs on. OS, Android, Blackberry, Windows Phone, and WebOS are all great platforms and provide different functionalities that cater to the needs of specific individuals. iOS caters more to a consumer friendly and business market, while Android caters more to people who love the option to customize their OS a lot. These mobile OS each offer new ways for you to enjoy your mobile experience, so it’s important that you realize which would be best for your individual or business need.

Georgian Territory Essay -- South Ossetia, Abkhazia

South Ossetia and Abkhazia Russia’s involvement in conflict settlement on the territory of Georgia had always been the most controversial, even before the events of August 2008. After breaking out in December 1990, the conflict in South Ossetia was ended in June 1992 by the signing of a ceasefire agreement in Dagomys. According to the agreement, Russia was to act as a guarantor of peace and security. In August 1992, there was a further escalation in another conflict on Georgian territory – in Abkhazia. According to experts, in the years prior to this (1991-1992) and during the first month of the war, Russia played a double role, providing military aid both to Georgia and Abkhazia. There was no consensus among the Russian policy-making elites with regard to the conflict. Only after September 1992 did Russia begin to support Abkhazia more actively (Antonenko, 2005). Shevarnadze had no other choice but to sign another ceasefire agreement with Russia, the so-called Moscow A greement of 1994 on Abkhazia. The Georgian leadership acted under the threat of a further escalation of the conflict and a possible large-scale confrontation with their much stronger neighbour. This explains why the Georgian President had to agree to negotiation formats and mechanisms of conflict settlement with Russia in the leading role, although Georgia would have preferred greater involvement of other international actors in conflict resolution efforts. Although the peacekeeping forces stationed in Abkhazia had a mandate from the CIS, they were exclusively Russian troops. For political negotiations, two formats were established: the Geneva process (with the participation of Georgia and Abkhazia and the UN Secretary-General’s Group of Friends of Georgia, involv... ...ssia’s moves to contribute to conflict resolution have been quite reluctant, and have not broken the negotiation deadlock in any of the four cases. Russia constantly felt both the pressure of Georgia and Moldova, which have questioned the legitimacy of Russian peacekeeping forces, and that caused by the interest of other international actors in launching civil and civil-military missions of their own. In sum, it has invested much (both rhetorically and in practice) in defending its right to remain in the zones of conflict. However, as Ivan Sukhov has rightly noted, the presence of a Russian contingent in Georgia should not have been a goal in itself. Unlike the situation in the 1990s, a Russian peacekeeping mission would have made sense only if it was combined with active Russian efforts towards conflict settlement, together with the US and the EU (Sukhov, 2006).

Organizational behaviour Essay

An organization is a group of people who work independently towards a common goal. Organization achieves their goals by creating, communicating, and operating the system existing in every organization. To better organize and manage the organization, manager needs to understand the element of the social system, role and role conflict, as well as the culture of the organization. In this assignment, we were asked to study a case regarding the role conflict and culture that were faced by Amir as a management trainee at a well-established organisation which at the same time, he is a husband and a father of two children. Based on the study case, we found out that Amir is facing with inter-role conflict, personal-role conflict, role overloads and role ambiguity. All these role conflicts must be solved professionally as it can affect Amir’s work performance and the perception of the organizational members towards him. In order to resolve these problems, Amir has to study the changes t hat happen in the culture of the organization as he needs to adapt with the new environment. There are two types of cultural changes in organization, that are the cultural revolution and the cultural evolution. In Amir’s case, he is confronted with the cultural revolution. Thus, he needs to know the process of creating back the organizational culture so that he can create a good culture. Look more:  starbucks moorhead essay OBJECTIVE 1. To define organization culture. 2. To describe the factors shaping the organizational culture. 3. To know role and define role conflict in the study case. 4. To know how to resolve the role conflict in organizational. DISCUSSION Question 1 Do you think that Amir is facing the problem of role conflict? If yes, identify the kind of role conflict Amir is facing. Role is when someone understands the relative importance of those tasks, in other words, they know the priorities of their various responsibilities, while role conflict is a situation in which an individual encounters  deviating role expectations. In my opinion, yes, Amir is facing the problem of role conflict that consists of inter-role conflict, person role conflict, role overload and role ambiguity. Below is the explanation about these role conflicts in this case. I. Inter-role conflict Inter-role conflicts occur when an individual occupies more than one role with inconsistent expectations. In other words, certain role with expected of a person are in conflict with the other roles that the person holds. For example, Aminah has a class-mate that wants to lodge at their room for one day but the room-mate disagree because they have their own rule which is not outsiders are allowed to stay in the room. In this situation, Aminah has to faces the conflict on which role should be performed whether as a class-mate or a room-mate. In Amir’s case, Amir as a husband does not know how to manage time between the family and the company. Amir was required to do all kinds of work until he has become a workaholic. In the same time, Amir was not able to give sufficient time to his family as he devoted most of his time working even on Sundays. II. Person-role conflict Person-role conflicts may define when a role holder is required to perform a role that contradicts or violates the role holder’s attitudes, beliefs and behaviors. As an example, when a staff expected to punch card for his friend, indirectly it may contradicts the staff attitude and beliefs where by a staff in the company should not to punch card for the other staff except themselves. Throughout Amir’s case, Amir has to assign with various other roles and was required to coordinate and communicate with diverse groups of the workforce.  However, the team members do not want to give full cooperation in fulfilling the tasks. Indirectly, was scolded by the boss for errors committed by other team members. III. Role overload Role overload occurs when there is a lack of balance or reasonableness in the number or the extent of expectations from a role holder. It also happens when the expectations sent to a role holder are unmanageable and there is not enough time for the role holder to perform all the roles expected of him or her. For example, where a student is expected to study while at the same time expected to do part time job. As a student, they must expect to perform some other roles even though it is impossible to be done in the same time. In this case, it’s similar with Amir which is he was required to do all kinds of managerial task from conducting office correspondence and conducting business meetings to solving the complaints of customers and subordinates. As time passed, Amir became more efficient and performed various roles in increasing effective manner. IV. Role Ambiguity Role ambiguity occurs when there is lack of clarity in understanding what expectations or prescriptions exist for any given role. A role holder lacks sufficient information in performing the role. This results in the role holder feeling unsure on how to act in his or her role. As an example, a new student in second intake was entered in the university and they did not receive complete information regarding the subject or any related activities. Indirectly, the student’s do not sure how to act in his or her role. In this case, the first few months on job Amir have to faced on stress which  is he was entrusted with limited tasks related to his area of expertise as a management. It is because the organization did not explained to him regarding his role as a management trainee. Question 2 What could be done to resolve his problem? For every problem, there will be solutions and ways to overcome. Amir who deals with many types of role conflicts can handle the problems well if he knows how to deal with it. I. Inter-role conflict In solving Amir’s dilemmas of role conflict as a worker and as a head of family members, the best way in dealing with these problems is he must know how to manage his time well. He also needs to understand and distinguish his responsibilities in holding both roles. Amir should avoid working on weekends as that is the only time to have a good time with the family members. This is to make sure that at the same time of being a dedicated worker to the organization, he can spend his quality time with his family members as well. II. Person-role conflict As a former Management Executive, for sure Amir will expect the task of management trainee would involves his area of expertise that is, management. However, different roles were assigned to him. In solving this matter, Amir should confront with his superior and ask for a good explanation regarding his exact tasks that he needs to fulfill. He also should stand for his right if he was scolded for errors not committed by him. In my opinion, even though the tasks given are not in his area, Amir can take the tasks as a new thing to learn. III. Role overload As a worker, the tasks given by the superior is a must to do but, if Amir thinks there is a lot of work to be done in a time, he should suggests his superior an assistant if possible. Amir should not be stressful with the multi tasks given in order to maintain a good quality of work. If the superior could not fulfill his suggestion, maybe Amir could ask for higher pay. Even though money could not promise happiness and could not replace the time that he can be with his family, at least he would feel satisfied and appreciated for the job he done. IV. Role Ambiguity The transfer of information between the sender and the receiver is very important in an organization. Improper communication of information definitely will result misunderstanding between both parties. In solving Amir’s role ambiguity as he was not explained the role as a management trainee, what he should do is get a clear information on his role from his superior. Even though he has a strict taskmaster, he must be brave enough to ask and get the exact information from him. Or else, he should get the right information either from the seniors or other colleagues. Question 3 Comment on the culture of the organization that Amir work in.  Prior to comment further on the culture of the organization that Amir work in, it is necessary to explain briefly on what is the Organizational Culture. Organization are more than a workplace, they are place where people spend most of their time. Thus, the culture of the organization is important for employees to stay and work happily. Organization Culture according to Robbins and Judge is a system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the organization from other organization. Organization Culture is a set of assumption, beliefs, values, and norms shared by everyone in an organization. Organization Culture change in two ways, Cultural Revolution and Cultural Evolution. There are two main type of organization culture, and it is called dominant cultures and subcultures. It is appropriate to categories that the type of  culture that Amir works in is subcultures. Subcultures develop to reflect common problems, situations or consequences that are faced by members in a department. However, it is also includes the core values of the organization. Correspondence to Amir situation that can be seen from the case study article, it is said that his role as management trainee is not properly explain, and when he is assigned with various roles that required him to communicate to a different group of workforce, problem started to occurs and these problem starting to put pressure on Amir. A cooperation that is essential in completing a task was not given to him by other members, instead they act rudely to him. And if there is an error made by other members Amir was the person who will be scolded by his boss. We can see here that it is logical to categories that Amir working in a subcultures environment because Amir is facing a problem in his work, and he is the one who received the consequences of others mistakes, and it is clearly that the core values of the organization isn’t quite harmony because of the values and ethics that is being practice by other members in the organization.. Differ with dominant culture, dominant culture are the core values that are shared by everyone in an organization, which can be understand that everyone have a same work ethics that allow them to complete their work efficiently. Cultural change is influence or is shape by several factors, firstly is characteristic of people within the organization, the values, beliefs, and attitudes that is bring by the people inside are shared with each other. If most of them have good values it will influences other to do so and vice versa. Secondly, cultural change is being shape by the nature of employment relationship. This factor comes from human resources policies that is enforced in an organization, for example trying bonuses with performance levels. Employees may take these policies as motivating factors to work harder. Third factors is design of organizational structure, defines as primary reporting relationship that exists within an organization where a division of work can be seen clearly. Lastly, cultural change can be shape by the organizational ethics, it is a moral values, rules and principles outlined to employees on how they should act and behave when it comes to dealing with each other and also with people outside the organization. A suggestion could be shared here, as a top management in an organization, Amir’s boss should be a role-model to his subordinates, he should create an efficient organizational culture in order for them to achieve successfulness. In order to create a prosper organizational culture, Amir’s boss can follow the following steps. First step is formulae a strategic values, which is a basics beliefs about an organization’s environment. Secondly is, develop cultural values, which the values that the employees need to have and act upon in carrying out its strategic values. Third step is, create vision, vision is a picture of what the organization is going to be in the future. Fourth step is, initiate implementation strategies, which is develop action strategies to accomplish its vision. And last step which is the step five is, reinforce cultural behaviors, reinforcement may take various form such as reward system that acknowledged desired behaviors. CONCLUSION Organizational behaviour is concerned with people’s thoughts, feelings, emotions and actions in setting up work. Understanding individual behaviour is in itself a challenge but understanding group behaviour in an organization environment is a monumental managerial task. Role conflict is a situation in which an individual encounters divergent role expectations. This occurs due to different perception and expectations of a person’s role. As we work together in an organization, we should treat people in the organization as a family. In this way, it is easier for us to communicate and interact with each other. The organization itself needs to plant this input in the minds of the workers so that the people that work in the roof of the firm will work happily without any conflicts. REFERENCE 1. Organizational behaviour oxford Sarah Sabir Ahmad 2. Kamus Dwibahasa Oxford Fajar Joyce M. Hawkins

Cricket Essay

History of Cricket Early cricket was at some time or another described as â€Å"a club striking a ball†. The ancient games of club-ball, stool-ball, trap-ball, stob-ball†. Cricket can definitely be traced back to Tudor times in early 16th-century England. Written evidence exists of a game known as â€Å"creag† being played by Prince Edward, the son of Edward I (Longshanks), at Newenden, Kent in 1301 and there has been speculation, but no evidence, that this was a form of cricket. Many other words have been suggested as names for the term â€Å"cricket†. In the earliest real reference to the sport in 1598, it is called â€Å"creckett†. Given the strong old trade connections between south-east England and the County of Flanders when the latter belonged to the Duchy of Burgundy, the name may have begun from the Middle Dutch kricke, meaning a stick ; or the Old English cricc or cryce meaning a crutch or staff. In Old French, the word criquet seems to have meant a kind of c lub or stick. In Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary, he derived cricket from â€Å"cryce, Saxon, a stick†. Another possible source is the Middle Dutch word krickstoel, meaning a long low stool used for kneeling in church and which resembled the long low wicket with two stumps used in early cricket. According to Heiner Gillmeister, a European language expert of Bonn University, â€Å"cricket† derives from the Middle Dutch phrase for hockey, met de krik ket sen â€Å"with the stick chase†. Dr. Gillmeister believes that not only the name but the sport is of origin. During the 17th century, numerous references indicate the growth of cricket in the south-east of England. By the end of the century, it had become an organized activity being played for high stakes and it is believed that the first professionals appeared in the years following the Restoration in 1660. A newspaper report survives of â€Å"a great cricket match† with eleven players a side that was played for high stakes in Sussex in 1697 and this is the earliest known reference to a cricket match of such importance. The game went through major development in the 18th century and became the national sport of England. Betting played a major part in that development with rich  patrons forming their own â€Å"select XIs†. Cricket was popular in London as early as 1707 and large crowds flocked to matches on the Artillery Ground in Finsbury. The single wicket form of the sport attracted huge crowds and wagers to match. Bowling became popular around 1760 when bowlers began to pitch the ball instead of rolling or skimming it towards the batsman. This caused a revolution in bat design because, to deal with the bouncing ball, it was necessary to introduce the modern straight bat in place of the old â€Å"hockey stick† shape. The Hambledon Club was founded in the 1760s and, for the next 20 years until the formation of MCC and the opening of Lord’s Old Ground in 1787, Hambledon was both the game’s greatest club and its focal point. MCC quickly became the sport’s premier club and the custodian of the Laws of Cricket. New Laws introduced in the latter part of the 18th century included the three stump wicket and leg before wicket. The 19th century saw underarm bowling replaced by first roundarm and then overarm bowling. Both developments were controversial. Organization of the game at county level led to the creation of the county clubs, starting with Sussex CCC in 1839, which ultimately formed the official County Championship in 1890. Meanwhile, the British Empire had been instrumental in spreading the game overseas and by the middle of the 19th century it had become well established in India, North America, the Caribbean, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. In 1844, the first international cricket match took place between the United States and Canada, although neither has ever been ranked as a Test-playing nation. Cricket entered a new era in 1963 when English counties introduced the limited overs variant. As it was sure to produce a result, limited overs cricket was lucrative and the number of matches increased. The first Limited Overs International was played in 1971. The governing International Cricket Council (ICC) saw its potential and staged the first limited overs Cricket World Cup in 1975. In the 21st century, a new limited overs form, Twenty20, has made an immediate impact. Equipment and Changes over Time Ball- A red or white ball with a cork base, wrapped in twine covered with leather. The ball should have a circumference of 23 cm (9.1 inches) unless it is a children’s size. Bat- A wooden bat is used. The wood used is from the Kashmir or English willow tree. The bat cannot be more than 38 inches (96.5 cm) long and 4.25 inches (10.8 cm) wide. Aluminium bats are not allowed. The bat has a long handle and one side has a smooth face. Stumps- 3 wooden poles known as the stumps. Bails- Two crosspieces are known as the bails. Sight screen- A screen placed at the boundary known as the sight screen. This is aligned exactly parallel to the width of the pitch and behind both pairs of wickets. Boundary- A rope demarcating the perimeter of the field known as the boundary. History of the Cricket Bat- (The only known piece of equipment that has changed, has only been the bat.) 1624 – This is the first time that we have any mention of a cricket bat. An inquest was carried out after a fielder was killed. The batsman had tried to prevent him from catching the ball, and had presumably whacked him on the head in the process! Originally bowlers used to bowl the ball underarm. The cricket bat was therefore shaped very much like a hockey stick. 1770’s – The laws were changed to allow â€Å"length bowling†, which was still performed underarm. The cricket bat became roughly parallel with a maximum width of 4.25†³. This is still the same today. They were extremely heavy, with the â€Å"swell† at the bottom. 1820’s – Round arm bowling was allowed, instigating more bounce so the cricket bat became lighter with a higher â€Å"swell†. 1830’s – Until this period all cricket bats were one piece willow. However, because of increased breakages and shock as the ball travelled faster, cricket bat makers started to â€Å"splice† handles into bats. Handles were either solid willow or ash. 1835 – The length of a cricket bat  was restricted to 38†³, which is still the same today. 1840 – The first recorded use of a â€Å"spring† being inserted into the handles of the cricket bat. These were initially whalebone (as used in ladies corsets) and some years later India rubber. 1853 – Thomas Nixon, a Notts cricketer, introduced the use of cane in handle making in cricket bats. 1864 – The laws were altered to allow over- arm bowling so there was a further lightening and more refined shaping of the blade. Handles became intricate constructions and were nearly all made of cane with Indian rubber grips. 1870’s – The shape of today’s cricket bat evolves.